Other Physiological Conditions as Sources of Drives

When the skin is injured, strong defensive reactions follow, involving the skeletal muscles. If the pain is intense and continues for some time, the smooth musculature also is involved. Gently stroking or patting the skin tends toward relaxation of the muscles. Its therapeutic value in cases of restlessness, nervousness, and insomnia is well known and need not be based upon the psychoanalyst's view of stimulating "erotic zones."

Change or shifting of attention seems also to be a normal human activity, motivated by the boredom which follows a period of attentive regard (which may be too short for fatigue to enter) or by the urge to active seeking of different perceptual or other fields. Whatever the exact nature of this motive may be, we do not doubt its existence. Such a motive or drive is of inestimable value, insuring a wealth of sensory, perceptual, and other experiences.

Emotion as a Source of Motive

Emotional states constitute another important original source of vigorous and directed, or motivated, behavior. In the two preceding chapters, attention was called frequently to the intense character of the emotional response. An emotional state involves an upset condition of the visceral organs, which, in a sense, is not unlike the conditions found in hunger and the other appetitive drives. This visceral state may act as a strong internal stimulus, impelling the individual to activity.

Strong emotional states of the type of fear and rage are likely to stimulate intense physical activities which are, originally, of an uncoordinated nature. A three-year-old who is angered by another child's appropriating a cherished toy may resort to tears, may hold on to the toy, may try to pull it from the other's hands, or may strike, kick, or shove the offender. He selects one response or another according to the circumstances and his own past experiences, but the emotional state is the motivating factor throughout. As children mature, the character of the outward response to emotion usually becomes modified. A young child who is angered may respond by striking. A few years later, when enraged, he may respond only by angry words and facial expression. As he comes into the teens and social pressure is exerting its influence more effectively, he may respond merely by angry looks. As an adult the individual may not change his expression, but may make a remark that does not reveal the inner turmoil that he feels. Even in this last case, however, the stimulating effect of the emotional state may be present, although held in check, and may lead to the highly pertinent reply.

The milder organic states, such as those elicited by a full stomach, by loving attention, or by certain features of enjoying music or art, are sometimes designated as pleasant or relaxed emotions. These also may have an effect on the motivated behavior of the individual, reducing the activity of skeletal muscles and tending toward repose and compliance. Various internal states, therefore, may have the same effects as tissue needs in stimulating the various reactive mechanisms of the individual. The internal drives based on emotion are of great importance in the development of the social motives and in the mental, hygiene of the individual.